United States-Russian relations in the post Cold War era Essay Example for Free

United States-Russian relations in the post Cold War era Essay The global affairs after the Second World War were dominated by two superpowers with totally different political and socioeconomic models. The central drama within the global system was characterized by conflict between the United States and the Soviet Union expressed in the form of capitalism and communism. These two superpowers had at their disposal the greatest armies and artilleries that no any other country could match during this period of time (Donnelly, 1965). The internal organization of these two superpowers was radically different with the United States having a democratic polity and a market economy while the Soviet Union having a totalitarian political system and a command economy. Each of these nations believed in the superiority of their system and thus attempted to actively promote the replication of these systems in other countries while at the same time hindering the expansion of the others system. The competition between the United States and Russia was thus driven by this ideological divide. Put simply, the United States and the Soviet Union were not only rivals because of their greatness in the international system but also because they were two powers with irreconcilable visions concerning how the political, social and economic life should be organized. During the initial stages of the final decade of the twentieth century, one side in this bipolar ideologically divided system collapsed and for the first time in the history of the modern world, there occurred a shift the international balance of power without a major conflict leading to war. For the political leaders in Russia and the United States, these were hard times and talks were initiated concerning the new task of transforming Russia into a democratic polity, market economy and a new associate with the West, instantly erasing the cold war. However, as the century concluded, the attitude in the United States-Russian relations was becoming more inclined towards the cold war era than with the more optimistic periods of the early nineteen nineties. The policies that the Clinton administration had pursued toward Russia were derided by members of the Congress, academics, journalists and the emerging campaign by George W. Bush for the presidency. The question that they most often asked was whoever â€Å"lost Russia†. In particular, the Clinton administration was charged with failing in virtually every issue. It was accused of delving too much into Russian internal affairs, ignoring or even supporting corruption among leading Russian officials, over personalizing their relationship with Yeltsin, being blind to the evils of Russia towards the breakaway Republic of Chechnya and failure to stop Russia from assisting Iran with its nuclear weapons program. Listening to the experts and the Republicans led to the conclusion that every conceivable thing that would have gone wrong concerning the United States-Russian relations did go wrong (Masci, 1998: 232-3). The major question that one is bound to ask is whatever happened between the years that the Soviet Union collapsed and the witch hunt for the lost Russia less than a decade later. Various argument have been put forward with some holding that it was largely the fault of the first Bush administration for failing to offer enough assistance to the fledgling regime of Yeltsin in 1992 (Goldgeier McFaul, 2003). Others still argue that all the wrong kinds of assistance was provided by the Clinton administration after 1993 or that it had pursued â€Å"anti-Russian† policies which maximized Russian resentment for the West (Beschloss Talbott, 1993: 9). The relations between Russia and the United States seemed to have taken a decisive turn in the aftermath of the 9/11 attack in 2001, hardly a year after George Bush became the president. Russian president showed a good gesture by moving quickly to show his sympathy for the United States and pledging his support for collective responsibility against global terrorism. There was much optimism that Russia was being inclined to the West. The relationship between the United States and Russia seemed better until the period of the American-led war with Iraq. In looking at the relationship between the United states and Russia, I am primarily interested in the perception of the United States policy makers concerning what they intended to accomplish and their understanding of the events. For instance, did they understand that there was a transition going on in the Soviet Union in 1991 and what was their belief concerning what they could do? Did the United States believe that the enemy was gone once the Soviet Union disintegrated? The most transformative events in the affairs of the world since the period that immediately followed World War II was marked by the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the disintegration of the Soviet Union. Before this period, the United States foreign policy was focused of containing the threat posed by the Soviet Union. The Americans, prior to 19090s, saw every issue in the world in the perspective of the cold war struggle with the Soviet Union-whether it was peace in the middle East, defense of Europe, African civil war or even the development of resources on the floor of the ocean. Thus, the collapse of the Soviet Union dealt a blow for United States foreign policymakers. Considering that the main American enemy was defeated, there was need for the vacuum to be filled posing an intellectual and organizational challenge of refocusing and reorienting foreign policy away from the period of cold war and toward a new relationship with Russia. With the end of the Cold War, an opportunity for creating a basically new and cooperative relationship between Russia and the United States was established. The establishment of a positive United States-Russian partnership was seen to offer benefits not only for the two nations but also in confronting the challenges that the human race is faced with during this period of time. A necessary climate for beefing up United States-Russian relations was created by the changes that were introduced in the foreign policy of the Soviet Union during Gorbachevs tenure. The new way of thinking introduced by Gorbachev held that the preservation of peace must be the fundamental objective of all nations. The Marxist thought of class struggle was abandoned as the central guiding principle in foreign policy. Instead, the global human values were to go beyond the narrow class interests in guiding the conduct and behavior of nations. This New Thinking was not the same as the principle adopted by Khrushchev. In his principle of peaceful coexistence, Khrushchev advocated for the evasion of all out war between communist and capitalist system even though he did not indicate that the struggle between capitalism and communism should be concluded. He continued to maintain that one of the systems will emerge to be the victor. Gorbachev and his associates saw the world as an interrelated totality where every nation must cooperate for in the interest of the survival of entire human race. The basic argument was that nations of communist and capitalist orientation should not exist in a state of perpetual struggle. It was held that every nation should make concerted effort to ensure that the world is a safe place. Gorbachevs New Thinking was not simply a rhetoric or propaganda but was supported by dramatic changes in the international behavior of Russia. Gorbachev saw the collapse of the Berlin Wall and signed important agreement with the United States. Russia also sought for integration in the world economy besides seeking for a more positive relation with democracies of Western Europe. The United States and Russia also participated jointly in dialogs aimed at resolving regional conflicts in places like Africa. The Soviet troops were also removed from Afghanistan and Africa by the soviet government. There was also cooperation between the two nations in their response to the Kuwait invasion by Iraq. With this regard, the relation between the United States and Russia improved so much during the tenure of Gorbachev. It was during this period that the thinking and preferences of Russians with regard to foreign policy underwent massive transformation. Russia discarded their confrontational approach of depending on their military force in favor of diplomatic cooperation as the preferred method of building and managing positive relationships with other nations. The Soviet principle of New Thinking stressed on the holistic nature of the world community, offering a significant and appropriate set of concepts for guiding the behavior of nations in the global environment. Ronald Reagan who had described the Soviet Union as an evil empire changed his view considering the dramatic changes that the Soviet Union underwent. When he was asked if he still considered the Soviet Union as an evil state, he responded that his initial remarks were meant for a different time and era. With the end of the Cold War, the animosity between the two nations also concluded. This spirit that was started by Soviet leaders was adopted by other succeeding leaders. After taking office, Yeltsin stated their aim to become involved with other countries in the world in the process of â€Å"asserting the ideals of humanism, freedom and democracy in the community of mankind†. He also stated Russias intention to pursue â€Å"an honest, open and moral policy which is not subordinated to ideological dictate†. This statement shows that Russia was slowly being integrated into the global system by changing from a military to civilian based economy. As much as his foreign policies appeared to be a continuation of the non-confrontational approach, the strategies that he adopted encompassed basic domestic changes that had implications for the United States foreign policy (Cross Oborotova, 1994). The attempt by Gorbachev to carry out reforms within the context of the existing socialist system had led to some ambiguity and suspicion in the United States concerning the intention of Soviet leadership. It also restricted the degree to which shared values existed between the former Soviet Union and the United States. Yeltsin on the other hand openly rooted for capitalism, abandoning the socialist model, thereby eliminating ideological ambiguity and extending the foundation for common United States-Russian values and objectives. He reiterated his commitment to nurturing democratization of Russia and embracing a free market economy which are the sacred values of American tradition. Although the Yeltsin era is a representation of the continuation of the peaceful policies that had been placed during the time of Gorbachev, it is during his tenure that one can actually begin talking about a new chapter in the relations between the United States and Russia. As much as the United States was cautious in their response to these dramatic changes in the former Soviet Union particularly during the tenure of Gorbachev, its administration welcomed such changes and were willing to exploit the new opportunities to improve bilateral relations. James Barker, once the United States Secretary of State, classified the progress of United States policy towards the former Soviet Union and Russia from the period of Gorbachev to the period of Yeltsin and moving â€Å"further than detente and even diplomatic cooperation† to â€Å"broad international partnership†. The leadership of Yeltsin changed the conception that the United States of the Western powers were potential enemies of the Russian Federation (Allin, 1995). Clinton recognized the heavy task faced by the new Russian Federation reformers, appealing to the United States to support the Russians. According to him, the Russians were attempting to carry out three fundamental changes at once. These fundamental changes were; the shift to market economy from communism, a shift to democracy from tyrannical dictatorship and a shift to an independent state from a great empire-an endeavor that the United States ought to support (Cohen, 1993). Clinton emphasized the importance of Russia at the 1993 Russo-American summit in Vancouver, reaffirming the United States economic and security interest in establishing a favorable United States-Russian relationship. He pointed out that the progress of Russia and the new independent states of the former Soviet Union toward democracy and free market was held with much importance by the United States as it represents a great security challenge and provides great economic opportunities (Weber, 1993: 253). After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, the United States president George Bush and the Russian president Yeltsin signed the Camp David Declaration which defined the relations between the two countries as founded on â€Å"friendship and partnership†. Andrey Kozyrev, Russian Foreign Minister, stated that the goal of Russia vis-a-vis the United States is the stable establishment of relations with an inclination toward strategic partnership and alliance founded on common values (Friedman, 2000). Conclusion Russia and the United States would do much injustice to each other if they choose to pursue isolationist course. However, there has been an increase in public support for withdrawal from the foreign scene in both countries. In the last American presidential elections was dominated by domestic issues. This trend was also seen almost two decades ago in 1992 when the presidential election was also characterized by domestic issue. After the Second World War, the Americans saw that their freedom and security were threatened by communism and thus were ready to support presidential appeals to counter the expansion of Soviet around the world. However, the post-Cold War era lacks Soviet as the enemy and thus the American public increasingly became uninterested in foreign affairs. Many Americans fail to strike the link between domestic and foreign issues as they are basically concerned with the rising unemployment, sagging economy, health care and a variety of domestic problems and hence lack the sympathy to invest their energies in dealing with the problem of other countries. Consequently, in Russia, policymakers, academics and the general public have circulated arguments that the country should concern itself with internal problems and that shifting from international realm would be integral for resources to be freed for domestic purposes. One variation of this trend seem to have gained prominence among politicians and scholars. The position holds that the Russian foreign policy should be continentalist as opposed to globalist. This position posits that the domestic problems in Russia hinders its possibilities for pursuing an active and multifaceted foreign policy (Cross Oborotova, 1994). As such, there is a general feeling among the proponents of this position that Russia should focus its energies on seeking relationships with the neighboring countries in Europe and Asia. Within the increasingly interdependent world community, isolationism is not a realistic option. Limiting the relation between United States and Russia would not serve the interest of either nation. As much as the United States is the major remaining power and the undisputed leader of the Western world, it would be wrong to think that it can maintain peace in the world alone. It lacks the resources to carry out this role and must therefore cooperate with other major global powers so as to effectively counter the challenges existing in the post-cold War arena. Russia is still a strong nation and a nuclear superpower and hence the cooperation between these two countries is very important. As much as Russia is a Eurasian nation, it cannot ignore the role of the United States or become absorbed with its own domestic problems. There have been concerns with regard to Russia becoming an adversarial competitor of the United States if it decides to support her. The basic argument is that Russia has always been an aggressive and hostile nation besides being an expansionist power. However, this question cannot be answered at the moment. Nevertheless, there may be disastrous consequences for United States interests if it ignores of fail to focus its attention and resources in furthering a favorable U. S. -Russian partnership. The Russians have thus exhibited remarkable patience in the transition period. Most Russians have shown their commitment to move ahead despite the economic difficulties, recognizing that they have endured many hardships in the past and that they cannot go back to the repressive and inefficient system that characterized their past. In order for the United States and Russia to achieve an enduring and full scale partnership, there are many obstacles that still need to be overcome despite the favorable developments in their relations that have been witnesses in the past decade. Russia does not possess much experience with market economy neither does it comprehend fully democratic principles. Its political traditions are founded on the autocratic czarist rule. Its aspirations for reforms demand a deep cultural and psychological transition coupled with the establishment of a concrete and enduring democratic representative institutions. This shift to democracy is not a linear process and thus, Russia may experience some setbacks and even some reversals. Again, the interests of the United States and Russia may not correspond owing to the multitude of cultural, historical, geopolitical and economic reasons. Work cited Allin, D. (1995). Cold War Illusions: America, Europe, and Soviet Power, 1969-1989, NY Beschloss, M. Talbott, S. (1993). At the Highest Levels: The Inside Story of the End of the Cold War. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, Cohen, W. (1993). America in the Age of Soviet Power, 1945-1991, NY Cross, S. Oborotova, A. (1994). The New chapter in United States-Russian relations: opportunities and challenges. Greenwood Publishing Group Donnelly, D. (1965). Struggle for the World: The Cold War, 1917-1965, NY Friedman, N. (2000). The Fifty-Year War: Conflict and Strategy in the Cold War, Annapolis, Garthoff, R. (1994). The Great Transition: American-Soviet Relations and the End of the Cold War. Brookings Institution Press Goldgeier, J. McFaul, M. (2003). Power and purpose: U. S. policy toward Russia after the Cold War. Brookings Institution Press Masci, D. (1998). U. S. -Russian Relations: Is the Post-Cold War Friendship in Trouble? CQ Press Weber, M. (1993). The Emergence of the Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation. Communist and Post Communist Studies, vol. 26, no. 3

Hobbes, Conatus and the Prisoners Dilemma :: Philosophy Essays

Hobbes, Conatus and the Prisoner's Dilemma ABSTRACT: I want to show the importance of the notion of conatus (endeavor) for Hobbes' political philosophy. According to Hobbes, all motion of bodies consists of elementary motions he called 'endeavors.' They are motions 'made in less space and time than can be given,' and they obey the law of persistence or inertia. A body strives to preserve its state and resist the causal power of other bodies. I call this the conatus-principle. Hobbes' argument for social contract and sovereign is based essentially on this model. He proves that the natural conatus makes people (i) strive to preserve their lives and therefore to get out of the destructive state of nature; (ii) commit to mutual contracts; (iii) keep the contracts unless some external cause otherwise determines; and (iv) establish a permanent sovereign power that Hobbes calls 'an artificial eternity of life.' All this is determined by the fundamental laws of nature, essentially, by the conatus-principle. I also show that the Priso ner's Dilemma interpretation of the Hobbesian state of nature does not represent all of the essential features of Hobbes' argument. I. Conatus and Motion Philosophers in the 17th century made hard efforts to explain the beginning and continuation of the motion of bodies. The notion of conatus ('striving' or 'endeavoring') was commonly used in the explanations. It refers to the power with which the motion of a body begins and is kept on. What is this power? Descartes explained it to be an active power or tendency of bodies to move, expressing the power of God. He distinguished between motion and the tendency to move, but Hobbes was anxious to argue that conatus actually is motion. In The Elements of Law he says it to be the "internal beginning of animal motion" (EL I.7.2), and in his later writings the notion of 'endeavor' refers to the beginning or first part of any kind of motion. Because motion is for Hobbes "a continual relinquishing of one place, and acquiring of another" (De Corp II.8.10), the beginning of a motion of a body must be an infinitely small change in the place of the body. Accordingly, Hobbes defines endeavor "to be motion made in less space and time than can be given; ... that is, motion made through the length of a point, and in an instant or point of time" (De Corp III.15.2). For Hobbes, the conatus is not an inherent power of a body but is determined by the motions of other bodies.

Gas Agency

Software requirement specification for BuzzyBUY. com (Online Shopping and auctioning Web Site) Prepared by Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2 1. Purpose 2 2. Document Conventions2 3. Intended Audience and Reading Suggestions2 4. Product Scope2 5. References 2 2. Overall Description 3 1. Product Perspective3 2. Product Functions3 3. User Classes and Characteristics 3 1. Administrators 3 2. Buyers4 3. Sellers 4 4. Casual visitors4 4. Design and Implementation Constraints5 . User Documentation6 6. Assumptions and Dependencies6 3. External Interface Requirements6 1. User Interfaces6 2. Hardware Interfaces6 3. Software Interfaces6 4. Communication Interfaces7 4. System Features7 1. Listing7 2. Account Creation8 3. Selling8 4. Buying8 5. Rating8 6. Others8 5. Other Non Functional Requirements9 1. Performance Requirements9 2. Safety Requirements9 3. Software Quality Attributes 9 4. Business Rules9 6. Appendix A: Glossary9 7. Appendix B: Analysis Models10 1. Introduction: 1. Purpose: The p urpose of this SRS is to specify the requirements of the web based software application buzzybuy. om, which is an online shopping and bidding system. The module to be developed is the first version of buzzybuy –version 1. 0. This Software Requirements Specification provides a complete description of all the functions and specifications of buzzybuy –version 1. 0 2. Document conventions: IEEE standards used. Proper sub numbering system for sub topics based on the importance and priority of the matter. 3. Intended audience and reading suggestions:The expected audience of this document is the faculty in charge of software engineering lab for 6th semester Computer Science, NITK suratkal .It will be used as a reference for grading in the lab for even semester of 2006. There is no suggested reading to be done before going through the document. 4. Product scope: Buzzybuy. com is designed to run on both any modern platform with GUI. It is assumed that the back end that will be used for implementation is MySQL and the front end that will be used is PHP. 5. References: 1. The applicable IEEE standards are published in â€Å"IEEE standards collection†, 2001 edition. 2. Software Engineering, A Practitioner’s approach, 6th edition. By Roger S Pressman. McGraw hill international. 2. Overall description 1.Product perspective:This is proposed to be an enhanced model of the present day existing shopping and auctioning portals. Many flaws in the present online shopping portals haven’t been able to exploit the full potential of e-commerce market. The Software Requirements Specifications intends to identify the flaws in the current existing system and propose an alternative or a solution to them. 2. Product Functions: †¢ It consists of two modules 1. Customer module 2. Administrator module †¢ A customer should have a user account for carrying out transactions. †¢ Transactions include buying, selling and auctioning. Administrator pr ovides the customer with an account following proper registration procedures to prevent malpractices in the transactions. †¢ Any visitor is allowed to browse through the product list, their prices and bidding procedures. †¢ Buying, selling and bidding procedures are kept transparent so that any user is able to go through the procedures. 3. User classes and characteristicsThere are 3 kinds of users for the proposed system 1. Administrators: They create user accounts and give it to the required customers. ? To educate consumers about Buzzybuy’s range of products and indigenous services. They must provide rules for the transactions. ? They must maintain the website and update the same making necessary changes at times. ? They must take care of the security issues involved in the transactions. ? They must inform the users about their transaction status and keep them updated about the progress through emails. ? They must receive feedbacks from their customers or any user s about their system and act upon the relevant ones. ? Look up at all the legal issues involved with the business. ? Keep place for advertisements in the website as a revenue generating option.The place has to be maintained and proper listings done. ? Any failures in the system have to be detected and repaired. 2. Buyers: They are the genuine customers of the website. They can see the listing, bid for various things, and also buy them to various payment options. 3. Sellers: These are the people involved in selling their products through buzzybuy. They consider this as a virtual market place. They need to be provided with proper advertisement place, and ratings of customers. The sellers too are rated based on the feedback they get from previous transactions completed from customers.These feedback data are treated with great respect and are transparent to everyone. The sellers too value this very highly. 4. Casual visitors: These people don’t come to the site on specific intens ions of buying or selling. They just visit to see the listing and too see the products. They need not have an user account. They can be future potential customers. They sellers can lure them with advertisements on the site based on their budget. The following usecase diagram states the above data in a graphical form: [pic] Fig 1 Usecase Diagram for BuzzyBuy 4. Design and Implementation Constraints The main constraint here would be the checking the genuineness of the buyer, which is not always possible. There can be security risks involved. †¢ The design constraints are that the browser at each place may not follow similar screen resolutions, browsers etc. This can lead to the website not having the impact it is planned to have. †¢ Also the rules of the land will prohibit certain items to be sold on the site. Hence all those factors need to be filtered in. †¢ Also storage space constraints may come if the listing becomes too large. Hence a strong server needs to be cho sen to host the database. 5.User Documentation: 1. Online user help with all the necessary help needed to use the site in a bulletin format. 2. Problem addressable forms 3. Software and database specification 4. Details of rules and regulation to sellers as well as buyers. 6. Assumptions and Dependencies None as per now 3. External Interface Requirements: 1. User Interfaces: Each part of the user interface intends to be as user friendly as possible. The fonts and buttons used will be intended to be very fast and easy to load on web pages. The pages will be kept light in space so that it won’t take a long time for the page to load.The staring page will ask the user what kind of a user is he, either seller, buyer or a casual visitor. Based on which the future pages will be loaded in a sequential manner. Each listing page will have a area to put the bid, the product details with photo etc. Each page also will have a search engine to search the products available so that it is re adily available and the user need not search for it. Each button will have an online help link to help the user in understanding the process. 2. Hardware Interfaces: A web server will be used to host the WebPages and the database management system.Most pages will be dynamic pages built with php. Each page will be optimized to the type of web browser and resolution being used. A minimum of PIII system running at 733 MHz will be needed to run the modules. Normal modes of network modes used in Internet technology will be used. 3. Software Interfaces: The incoming message mostly includes requests for a specific task, which on the course of the development will be decided in detail and dealt with in design specification document. The incoming messages from the messages will be converted to a specific format in the database language, the processing made and the request served.The operations will be intended to be made as fast as possible. 4. Communications Interfaces: The web server maint enance and other activities to be done using FTP transfer protocol. The security and other issues will be dealt with in the course of the project, as there is little idea as to how these things work to our team as per now. There will other communication interfaces with the users of the site with site-specific email, forms and complaint addressable mechanisms. These things as far as possible will be automated. 4. System Features 1.Listing: This includes the listing feature of the website where any search or other request of a user to a particular subject is served. The pertinent web pages are loaded and the particular database is initialized. There are listings based on the priority as by user preferences. This is actually the listing of web pages to the users by time of selling, deadline, price, quality etc. Listing includes listing of o Products to be sold directly o Products open for bidding till a particular date o Sellers in a particular area or with specific ratings o Used prod ucts on for sale. Just casual listings of random things o Payment options to buy or sell. |Action |Software reaction | |User logs in the system |The system authenticates | |User defines the information to view |System provides the necessary details as requested by the | | |particular employee | |User views the information | |Table No 1. The table states a typical control passing in the system during logging in Listings will be made very fast and user friendly. Proper security is also a very pertinent point here. 2. Account creation: This includes creating user accounts to each of sellers and buyers separately. This includes taking pertinent information from them and then initializing the database. The database needs to be properly updated on each transaction by the user and all the details of his/her account should figure in the account listing.The security of the account also should be dealt with. 3. Selling:Here the seller can list his/her things on his /her quoted price. Or else he can keep it for a bidding process where he is not sure of the price. The details of which will be kept in the user database. The details of his goods on selling list will be updated to him on a regular basis to his email id. The process of selling can include some bargaining too, but the details are yet to be thought of.The payment and feed back details are kept transparent. 4. Buying:There are 4 ways of buying or intending to buy o Direct buying o Bidding o Group buying o Tracking The details of which will be dealt with in the design specification. Each of these details are kept in the user account where he is kept updated about all his moves. 5. Ratings: Each products, buyers and sellers are constantly rated based on the feedback and the market behavior so that users feel secure about the system.These ratings are given based on a best pointer of five, the details of which are yet to be worked out. These ratings are intended to bring some trust and credibility to the concept of an online market. 6. Others: Include money transactions, legal issues, regional tastes, costs involved, business models used etc pertinent issues but won’t be seen in detail in the document as the things are beyond the reach of the design team. 5. Other Nonfunctional Requirements: 1. Performance Requirements: As stated before. 2.Safety Requirements: Suitable safety has to be taken while allowing a product to be sold on buzzybuy. They have to follow the legalities of the land, and must be ethical. There could be possible misuse of the system by bogus user, bidding and buying without paying up. It is not always possible to check the postal addresses. Also during money transactions the unreliable networks may cause further problems. So such practices need to be avoided. 3. Software Quality Attribute: The system is easy to load and light .It adds to the quality and usability of the system. Some others quality considerations such as adaptability, availability, correctness, flexib ility, interoperability, maintainability, portability, reliability, reusability, robustness, testability, and usability will also be very seriously taken to consideration. 4. Business Rules: Nothing is above customer satisfaction. So the rules need to be kept flexible to meet user needs and preferences at different times. Other models can be applied but is beyond the scope of the team. . Appendix A: Glossary 1. SRS: Software requirement specification 2. GUI: Graphical user interface. 3. PHP: Personal home pages 4. IEEE: Institute of electrical and electronic engineers. 5. FTP: File transfer protocol 6. SQL: Structural query language. 7. Appendix B: Analysis Models [pic] ———————– Central Processing server Listing Selling Buying Administration Administrator Casual visitor Seller Buyer Buyer Seller Casual visitor Administrator Administration Buying Selling Listing Central Processing server

Animal s Ability Foraging Theory - 1663 Words

Introduction Within certain environments such as casinos or betting houses, it is not uncommon to see individuals choose sub-optimally, meaning individuals will often choose options that offer a high reinforcement outcome but with a lower probability of it occurring than a safer choice that would offer less reinforcement but more reliably. In animals, it would be expected not to see this behaviour, for instance, optimal foraging theory (Pyke, 1984) argues that an animal s ability forage ultimately effects there overall evolutionary fitness in terms of ability to survive and the ability for the genes to be passed on. Therefore, choosing risky behaviour would ultimately be a deficit to their survival. However rather Paradoxically, animals do indulge in very similar gambling behaviours to that seen in humans (Stagner Zentall, 2010). Gipson, Alessandri, Miller, and Zentall (2009)was able to show this phenomenon to which they provided pigeons with two alternative keys a 50% discriminative chain, meaning it had two light that represented reinforcement or no reinforcement. A secondly a key that provided food 75% reinforcement on a non-discriminatory chain, meaning that it had a single contingency. what they found was that pigeons would choose the 50% alternative as opposed to the 75% chain despite it providing far more food Stagner and Zentall (2010) at a better rate. Implying that gambling behaviours are visible in animals. The Procedure is where pigeons are provided with theShow MoreRelatedObserver / Demonstrator Personality And Social Learning Retention3326 Words   |  14 Pagesinstincts. Whether or not an animal will make it to adulthood will be determined surviving varying degrees of danger and change. 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Lagothrix have a more diverseRead MoreHoney Bees And Its Effect On The Agricultural Industry1465 Words   |  6 Pages Since the late 1900’s, honeybees have been mysteriously disappearing in unusually high rates across the nation. The total number of these honey bee colonies has decreased from 5 million in the 1940s to only 2.5 million colonies toda y. Even though the bee colonies have decreased, the need for pollinators, such as bees, has increased dramatically. Declines in honey bee colony health were provoked further in the 1980s with the arrival of new pathogens and pests. The arrival of Varroa and trachealRead MoreMode of Production2758 Words   |  12 PagesIn the writings of Karl Marx and the Marxist theory of historical materialism, a mode of production (in German: Produktionsweise, meaning the way of producing ) is a specific combination of: * productive forces: these include human labour power and available knowledge given the level of technology in the means of production (e.g. tools, equipment, buildings and technologies, materials, and improved land). * social and technical relations of production: these include the property, powerRead More Physics and Fish Bioenergetics Essays2080 Words   |  9 Pagesassumption that there is no predation or competition, which are additional factors that will influence behavior. Fish bioenergetics includes components of physical forces, thermodynamics, and light characteristics, and follows energy laws and theories describing any other closed system. What it all boils down to is the net rate of energy intake. If this rate is positive a fish will grow and if it is negative then a fish will begin to undergo the stresses of losing biomass. Fish bioenergeticsRead MoreEvolution Can Be Scary, Important And Intimidating1618 Words   |  7 Pagessurprise, she stated that evolution contradicted religion and that one could not be a Christian and also believe in evolution. After hearing her entire opinion, I began my rebuttal. I stated that evolution, in easy terms, described a change in an animal/plant over a long period of time. I also wanted to clear up the misconception regarding the ape to human evolution. I stated that humans and apes merely share a common ancestor, but did NOT evolve into one another. Knowing that religion is a largeRead MoreMbuti Culture Essays2460 Words   |  10 Pagesof purged sunlight below a lofty, expansive cloak of trees, where abysmal peace exists with the punctuating cries of the numerous birds and animals that share the forest with the Mbuti. A consistent, peacefully affable warmth, ample rainfall, damp air, and rich earth nurture the abundance of vegetation that grows. The abundance of vegetation benefits animals, birds, and insects that are soon to become a nutrimental source of the Mbuti diet. The culture of the Mbuti derived from their dependents on